Healthcare Ethics and Law Conference 2026

Vaccine Hesitancy (Skepticism and Refusal):
Definitions, Epidemiology, and Etiology

References

  1. Gust D, Brown C, Sheedy K, Hibbs B, Weaver D, Nowak G. Immunization attitudes and beliefs among parents: beyond a dichotomous perspective. Am J Health Behav. 2005;29:81–92.

  2. Keane MT, Walter MV, Patel BI, Moorthy S, Stevens RB, Bradley KM, et al. Confidence in vaccination: a parent model. Vaccine. 2005;23:2486–93. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2004.10.026

  3. Benin AL, Wisler-Scher DJ, Colson E, Shapiro ED, Holmboe ES. Qualitative analysis of mothers’ decision-making about vaccines for infants: the importance of trust. Pediatrics. 2006;117:1532–41. doi: 10.1542/peds.2005-1728

  4. Estimates of Vaccine Hesitancy for COVID-19

  5. Dubé E, et al. Vaccine hesitancy: an overview. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2013 9:1763-73.

  6. Larson HJ, Gakidou, Murray CJL. The Vaccine-Hesitant Moment. N Engl J Med 2022;387:58-65.

  7. Navin MC, Ross LF. America’s Vaccine Policy Whiplash—Finding the Way Forward. JAMA. 2025;334:1877-1878.

  8. Is there an argument to be made for turning down the outrage on the hepatitis B vaccine decision?

  9. What Would Warrant a Vaccine Mandate in the United States Today?

  10. Ekos Research Associates Inc. Survey of Parents on Key Issues Related to Immunization. Ottawa: Public Health Agency of Canada, 2011

  11. Leask J. Target the fence-sitters. Nature 2011;473:443-5; PMID:21614055; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/473443a

  12. Scullard P, Peacock C, Davies P. Googling children’s health: reliability of medical advice on the internet. Arch Dis Child 2010; 95:580-2; PMID:20371593; http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/adc.2009.168856

  13. Betsch C, Renkewitz F, Betsch T, Ulshöfer C. The influence of vaccine-critical websites on perceiving vaccination risks. J Health Psychol 2010; 15:446-55; PMID:20348365; http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1359105309353647

  14. Leach M, Fairhead J. Vaccine Anxieties - Global Science, Child Health and Society. London, 2007.

  15. Revisiting the 2014-15 Disneyland measles outbreak and its influence on pediatric vaccinations. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2021 Sep 8;17(11):4210–4215. doi:10.1080/21645515.2021.1972707

  16. Trends in County-Level Childhood Vaccination Exemptions in the US. JAMA. Published Online: January 14, 2026. doi: 10.1001/jama.2025.24407